Open Access

Christian Leukel, Benedikt Lauber, Juliane Leuders, Sven Hertel, Wolfgang Taube

• Physical activity is increasingly recognized for its dual role in enhancing both physical health and cognitive development. This study compared the effects of three types of in-class interventions—CARDIO (aerobic/anaerobic exercises), BALANCE (balance training), and MENTAL (cognitive training without physical activity)—on cognitive function and mathematics achievement among primary school students, including a subsample with lower concentration scores. A total of 157 students from the 2nd and 3rd grades were assigned to one of the intervention groups. The interventions were conducted daily for 15 min over a 5-week period. Cognitive function was assessed using the KoKi concentration test, and academic achievement in mathematics was evaluated with a curriculum-based assessment. Concentration levels were increased in all groups, but only the BALANCE and MENTAL groups showed significant improvements in both easy and complex math exercises. In students with lower concentration scores, greater gains in simpler math tasks were observed for BALANCE and MENTAL groups. Both physical (BALANCE) and non-physical (MENTAL) breaks were associated with improvements in concentration and mathematics performance. Considering widespread sedentary behavior, physically active breaks may provide added health-related benefits.